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Sahra Altı Afrika Ülkelerinde Ticari Açıklık ve Doğrudan Yabancı Yatırımların Ekonomik Büyümeye Etkisi: Dinamik Panel Veri Analizi

Year 2023, Volume: 25 Issue: 2, 673 - 700, 18.09.2023
https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1252446

Abstract

Sahra altı Afrika ülkelerinde dış ticaret ve doğrudan yabancı yatırımlar önemli bir makroekonomik faaliyettir. Son yıllarda hem dış ticaret hem de yabancı yatırım alanında ülke profilleri ve ağırlığında önemli değişimler gözlenmektedir. Bu durumun ekonomik büyümeye etkisinin araştırılmasının literatüre katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir. 48 SAA ülkesi üzerine 2007 ve 2021 arası yıllık verilerle sistem GMM yaklaşımı kullanılarak panel veri analizi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Ampirik bulgular ticari açıklık ve doğrudan yabancı yatırımların ekonomiyi pozitif etkilediği fakat etkinin önemli düzeyde olmadığı yönündedir. Sonuçlar literatüre uyumludur. Bölgede yüksek düzeyde kamu harcamaları meydana gelmektedir. Kamu harcamalarının toplam talep üzerindeki etkisinin, diğer ekonomik faaliyetlin büyüme üzerine etkisinden daha güçlü olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Bu sebeple kamu harcamalarının diğer makro ekonomik faaliyetleri olumsuz etkilemeyecek verim ve etkinlikte yapılması, değişen ticaret ve yatırım yapısının ekonomik büyümeyi daha yüksek düzeyde olumlu etkileyecek önlem ve uygulamaların yapılması gerekmektedir.

References

  • Adams, S. (2009). Foreign direct investment, domestic investment, and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of policy modeling, 31(6), 939-949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2009.03.003 .
  • Adams, S., & Opoku, E. E. O. (2015). Foreign direct investment, regulations and growth in sub-Saharan Africa. Economic Analysis and Policy, 47, 48-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2015.07.001 .
  • Agbloyor, E. K., Gyeke‐Dako, A., Kuipo, R., & Abor, J. Y. (2016). Foreign direct investment and economic growth in SSA: The role of institutions. Thunderbird International Business Review, 58(5), 479-497. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.21791 .
  • Aghion, P., & Howitt, P. (1990). A model of growth through creative destruction. A model of growth through creative destruction. Econometrica, 60, 323–351 .https://doi.org/10.3386/w3223 .
  • Ahmed, A. D., Cheng, E., & Messinis, G. (2011). The role of exports, FDI and imports in development: evidence from Sub-Saharan African countries. Applied Economics, 43(26), 3719-3731. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036841003705303 .
  • Akadiri, A. C., Gungor, H., Akadiri, S. S., & Bamidele‐Sadiq, M. (2020). Is the causal relation between foreign direct investment, trade, and economic growth complement or substitute? The case of African countries. Journal of Public Affairs, 20(2), e2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2023 .
  • Anderson, T. W., & Hsiao, C. (1982). Formulation and estimation of dynamic models using panel data. Journal of econometrics, 18(1), 47-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(82)90095-1 .
  • Arellano, M., & Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. The review of economic studies, 58(2), 277-297. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297968 .
  • Asamoah, L. A., Mensah, E. K., & Bondzie, E. A. (2019). Trade openness, FDI and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: do institutions matter?. Transnational Corporations Review, 11(1), 65-79. https://doi.org/10.1080/19186444.2019.1578156 .
  • Babatunde, A. (2011). Trade openness, infrastructure, FDI and growth in sub-Saharan African countries. Journal of management policy and practice, 12(7), 27.
  • Barro, R. J. (1990). Government spending in a simple model of endogeneous growth. Journal of political economy, 98(5, Part 2), S103-S125. https://doi.org/10.1086/261726 .
  • Bhuimali, A., Sengupta, P. P., Laha, S. S., & Sinha, M. (2019). FDI, trade, and economic growth: a dynamic panel study on global economy. In The Gains and Pains of Financial Integration and Trade Liberalization. Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78973-999-220191013 .
  • Biswal, B., Dhawan, U., & Lee, H. Y. (1999). Testing Wagner versus Keynes using disaggregated public expenditure data for Canada. Applied Economics, 31(10), 1283-1291. https://doi.org/10.1080/000368499323490 .
  • Branstetter, L. (2000) Is foreign direct investment a channel of knowledge spillovers? Evidence from Japan’s FDI in the United States, NBER Working Paper No. 8015. https://doi.org/10.3386/w8015 .
  • Bun, M. J., & Windmeijer, F. (2010). The weak instrument problem of the system GMM estimator in dynamic panel data models. The Econometrics Journal, 13(1), 95-126. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.976398 .
  • Cinar, M., & Nulambeh, N. A. (2018). Foreign direct investment, trade openness and economic growth: a panel data analysis for Sub-saharan Africa. Business and Economics Research Journal, 9(4), 749-760. https://doi.org/10.20409/berj.2018.136 .
  • Dash, R. K., & Sharma, C. (2011). FDI, trade, and growth dynamics: new evidence from the post-reform India. The International Trade Journal, 25(2), 233-266. https://doi.org/10.1080/08853908.2011.554787 .
  • DEİK (Dış Ekonomik İlişkiler Kurulu) (2021). Afrika Kıtasal Serbest Ticaret Bölgesi (AfCFTA) ve Türk firmalarına etkisi. https://www.deik.org.tr/yayinlar-afrika-kitasal-serbest-ticaret-bolgesi-afcfta-ve-turk-firmalarina-etkisi. (Erişim 25.01.2023).
  • Driffield, N., & Love, J. H. (2007). Linking FDI motivation and host economy productivity effects: conceptual and empirical analysis. Journal of international business studies, 38, 460-473. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400268 .
  • Egyir, J., Sakyi, D., & Baidoo, S. T. (2020). How does capital flows affect the impact of trade on economic growth in Africa?. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 29(3), 353-372. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638199.2019.1692365 .
  • Ewing, B. T., & Yang, B. (2009). The differential growth effect of FDI across US regions. International Economic Journal, 23(4), 511-525. https://doi.org/10.1080/10168730903372232 .
  • Gabriel, A. A., & David, A. O. (2021). Effect of Trade Openness and Financial Openness on Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan African Countries. African Journal of Economic Review, 9(1), 109-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638199.2019.1692365 .
  • Grossman, G. M., & Helpman, E. (1991). Trade, knowledge spillovers, and growth. European economic review, 35(2-3), 517-526. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(91)90153-a .
  • Heid, B., Langer, J., & Larch, M. (2012). Income and democracy: Evidence from system GMM estimates. Economics Letters, 116(2), 166-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.02.009 4.
  • Keller, W. & Yeaple, S.R. (2003) Multinational enterprises, international trade, and productivity growth: firm level evidence from the United States, NBER Working Paper, No. 9504. https://doi.org/10.3386/w9504 .
  • Koku, P. S., & Farha, A. A. (2020). Other sources of FDIs in Sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Gulf cooperation council states. Journal of Business Research, 119, 619-626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.02.045 .
  • Lucas Jr, R. E. (1988). On the mechanics of economic development. Journal of monetary economics, 22(1), 3-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3932(88)90168-7 .
  • Meniago, C., & Lartey, E. K. (2021). Does FDI Affect Productivity and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Journal of African Business, 22(2), 274-292. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228916.2020.1745011 .
  • Modou, D., & Liu, H. Y. (2017). The impact of Asian foreign direct investment, trade on Africas economic growth. International Journal of Innovation and Economic Development, 3(1), 72-85. https://doi.org/10.18775/ijied.1849-7551-7020.2015.31.2004 .
  • Odhiambo, N. M. (2022). Is export-led growth hypothesis still valid for sub-Saharan African countries? New evidence from panel data analysis. European Journal of Management and Business Economics, 31(1), 77-93. https://doi.org/10.1108/ejmbe-06-2020-0156 .
  • Perraton, J. (2011). Explaining growth? The case of the trade–growth relationship. Journal of Economic Methodology, 18(3), 283-296. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350178x.2011.611028 .
  • Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of political Economy, 98(5, Part 2), S71-S102. https://doi.org/10.3386/w3210 .
  • Roodman, D. (2009). How to do xtabond2: An introduction to difference and system GMM in Stata. The stata journal, 9(1), 86-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x0900900106 .
  • Rjoub, H., Aga, M., Oppong, C., Sunju, N., & Fofack, A. (2017). The Impact of FDI Inflows on Economic Growth: Evidence from Landlocked Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Bilig-Turk DunyasI Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(1), 153-168.
  • Sakyi, D., & Egyir, J. (2017). Effects of trade and FDI on economic growth in Africa: an empirical investigation. Transnational Corporations Review, 9(2), 66-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/19186444.2017.1326717 .
  • Sala-i-Martin, X. (1990). Lecture Notes on Economic Growth: Five Prototype Models of Endogenous Growth, Volume II (No. 622). Center Discussion Paper.. https://doi.org/10.3386/w3564 .
  • Santana-Gallego, M., & Fourie, J. (2022). Tourism falls apart: How insecurity affects African tourism. Tourism Economics, 28(4), 995-1008. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816620978128 .
  • Tatoğlu, F. (2020). İleri panel veri analizi. Beta Yayınevi. İstanbul
  • UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) (2022). World Investment Report 2022: International Tax Reforms and Sustainable Investment (New York and Geneva: United Nations). https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/diaeia2022d4_en.pdf#page=169 (Erişim 27.01.2023). https://doi.org/10.18356/9789210021784 .
  • Vadlamannati, K. C., & Tamazian, A. (2009). Growth effects of FDI in 80 developing economies: the role of policy reforms and institutional constraints. Journal of Economic Policy Reform, 12(4), 299-322. https://doi.org/10.1080/17487870903314583 .
  • Willem te Velde, D., & Nair, S. (2006). Foreign direct investment, services trade negotiations and development: the case of tourism in the Caribbean. Development Policy Review, 24(4), 437-454. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2006.00333.x .
  • Wiredu, J., Nketiah, E., & Adjei, M. (2020). The relationship between trade openness, foreign direct investment and economic growth in West Africa: Static panel data model. Journal of Human Resource and Sustainability Studies, 8(1), 18-34. https://doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2020.81002 .
  • Xu, X., & Sheng, Y. (2012). Are FDI spillovers regional? Firm-level evidence from china.Journal ofAsian Economics,23(3), 244–258.
  • Yusuf, H. A., Shittu, W. O., Akanbi, S. B., Umar, H. M., & Abdulrahman, I. A. (2020). The role of foreign direct investment, financial development, democracy and political (in) stability on economic growth in West Africa. International Trade, Politics and Development, 4(1), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.1108/itpd-01-2020-0002 .
  • Zekarias, S. M. (2016). The impact of foreign direct investment (FDI) on economic growth in Eastern Africa: Evidence from panel data analysis. Applied Economics and Finance, 3(1), 145-160. https://doi.org/10.11114/aef.v3i1.1317 .

The Impact of Trade Openness And Foreign Direct Investment on Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa Countries: Dynamic Panel Data Analysis

Year 2023, Volume: 25 Issue: 2, 673 - 700, 18.09.2023
https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1252446

Abstract

Foreign trade and foreign direct investment in sub-Saharan African countries is an important macroeconomic activity. In recent years, significant changes have been observed in country profiles and weights in both foreign trade and foreign investment areas. It is thought that investigating the effect of this situation on economic growth will contribute to the literature. Panel data analysis was carried out using the system GMM approach with annual data on 48 SSA countries between 2007 and 2021. Empirical findings are that trade openness and foreign direct investments have a positive effect on the economy, but the effect is not significant. The results are compatible with the literature. There is a high level of public expenditure in the region. It is estimated that the effect of public expenditures on aggregate demand is stronger than the effect of other economic activity on growth. For this reason, it is necessary to make public expenditures in efficiency and effectiveness that will not adversely affect other macroeconomic activities, and to implement measures and practices that will positively affect economic growth in the changing trade and investment structure.

References

  • Adams, S. (2009). Foreign direct investment, domestic investment, and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of policy modeling, 31(6), 939-949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2009.03.003 .
  • Adams, S., & Opoku, E. E. O. (2015). Foreign direct investment, regulations and growth in sub-Saharan Africa. Economic Analysis and Policy, 47, 48-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2015.07.001 .
  • Agbloyor, E. K., Gyeke‐Dako, A., Kuipo, R., & Abor, J. Y. (2016). Foreign direct investment and economic growth in SSA: The role of institutions. Thunderbird International Business Review, 58(5), 479-497. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.21791 .
  • Aghion, P., & Howitt, P. (1990). A model of growth through creative destruction. A model of growth through creative destruction. Econometrica, 60, 323–351 .https://doi.org/10.3386/w3223 .
  • Ahmed, A. D., Cheng, E., & Messinis, G. (2011). The role of exports, FDI and imports in development: evidence from Sub-Saharan African countries. Applied Economics, 43(26), 3719-3731. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036841003705303 .
  • Akadiri, A. C., Gungor, H., Akadiri, S. S., & Bamidele‐Sadiq, M. (2020). Is the causal relation between foreign direct investment, trade, and economic growth complement or substitute? The case of African countries. Journal of Public Affairs, 20(2), e2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2023 .
  • Anderson, T. W., & Hsiao, C. (1982). Formulation and estimation of dynamic models using panel data. Journal of econometrics, 18(1), 47-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(82)90095-1 .
  • Arellano, M., & Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. The review of economic studies, 58(2), 277-297. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297968 .
  • Asamoah, L. A., Mensah, E. K., & Bondzie, E. A. (2019). Trade openness, FDI and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: do institutions matter?. Transnational Corporations Review, 11(1), 65-79. https://doi.org/10.1080/19186444.2019.1578156 .
  • Babatunde, A. (2011). Trade openness, infrastructure, FDI and growth in sub-Saharan African countries. Journal of management policy and practice, 12(7), 27.
  • Barro, R. J. (1990). Government spending in a simple model of endogeneous growth. Journal of political economy, 98(5, Part 2), S103-S125. https://doi.org/10.1086/261726 .
  • Bhuimali, A., Sengupta, P. P., Laha, S. S., & Sinha, M. (2019). FDI, trade, and economic growth: a dynamic panel study on global economy. In The Gains and Pains of Financial Integration and Trade Liberalization. Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78973-999-220191013 .
  • Biswal, B., Dhawan, U., & Lee, H. Y. (1999). Testing Wagner versus Keynes using disaggregated public expenditure data for Canada. Applied Economics, 31(10), 1283-1291. https://doi.org/10.1080/000368499323490 .
  • Branstetter, L. (2000) Is foreign direct investment a channel of knowledge spillovers? Evidence from Japan’s FDI in the United States, NBER Working Paper No. 8015. https://doi.org/10.3386/w8015 .
  • Bun, M. J., & Windmeijer, F. (2010). The weak instrument problem of the system GMM estimator in dynamic panel data models. The Econometrics Journal, 13(1), 95-126. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.976398 .
  • Cinar, M., & Nulambeh, N. A. (2018). Foreign direct investment, trade openness and economic growth: a panel data analysis for Sub-saharan Africa. Business and Economics Research Journal, 9(4), 749-760. https://doi.org/10.20409/berj.2018.136 .
  • Dash, R. K., & Sharma, C. (2011). FDI, trade, and growth dynamics: new evidence from the post-reform India. The International Trade Journal, 25(2), 233-266. https://doi.org/10.1080/08853908.2011.554787 .
  • DEİK (Dış Ekonomik İlişkiler Kurulu) (2021). Afrika Kıtasal Serbest Ticaret Bölgesi (AfCFTA) ve Türk firmalarına etkisi. https://www.deik.org.tr/yayinlar-afrika-kitasal-serbest-ticaret-bolgesi-afcfta-ve-turk-firmalarina-etkisi. (Erişim 25.01.2023).
  • Driffield, N., & Love, J. H. (2007). Linking FDI motivation and host economy productivity effects: conceptual and empirical analysis. Journal of international business studies, 38, 460-473. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400268 .
  • Egyir, J., Sakyi, D., & Baidoo, S. T. (2020). How does capital flows affect the impact of trade on economic growth in Africa?. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 29(3), 353-372. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638199.2019.1692365 .
  • Ewing, B. T., & Yang, B. (2009). The differential growth effect of FDI across US regions. International Economic Journal, 23(4), 511-525. https://doi.org/10.1080/10168730903372232 .
  • Gabriel, A. A., & David, A. O. (2021). Effect of Trade Openness and Financial Openness on Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan African Countries. African Journal of Economic Review, 9(1), 109-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638199.2019.1692365 .
  • Grossman, G. M., & Helpman, E. (1991). Trade, knowledge spillovers, and growth. European economic review, 35(2-3), 517-526. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(91)90153-a .
  • Heid, B., Langer, J., & Larch, M. (2012). Income and democracy: Evidence from system GMM estimates. Economics Letters, 116(2), 166-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.02.009 4.
  • Keller, W. & Yeaple, S.R. (2003) Multinational enterprises, international trade, and productivity growth: firm level evidence from the United States, NBER Working Paper, No. 9504. https://doi.org/10.3386/w9504 .
  • Koku, P. S., & Farha, A. A. (2020). Other sources of FDIs in Sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Gulf cooperation council states. Journal of Business Research, 119, 619-626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.02.045 .
  • Lucas Jr, R. E. (1988). On the mechanics of economic development. Journal of monetary economics, 22(1), 3-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3932(88)90168-7 .
  • Meniago, C., & Lartey, E. K. (2021). Does FDI Affect Productivity and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Journal of African Business, 22(2), 274-292. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228916.2020.1745011 .
  • Modou, D., & Liu, H. Y. (2017). The impact of Asian foreign direct investment, trade on Africas economic growth. International Journal of Innovation and Economic Development, 3(1), 72-85. https://doi.org/10.18775/ijied.1849-7551-7020.2015.31.2004 .
  • Odhiambo, N. M. (2022). Is export-led growth hypothesis still valid for sub-Saharan African countries? New evidence from panel data analysis. European Journal of Management and Business Economics, 31(1), 77-93. https://doi.org/10.1108/ejmbe-06-2020-0156 .
  • Perraton, J. (2011). Explaining growth? The case of the trade–growth relationship. Journal of Economic Methodology, 18(3), 283-296. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350178x.2011.611028 .
  • Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of political Economy, 98(5, Part 2), S71-S102. https://doi.org/10.3386/w3210 .
  • Roodman, D. (2009). How to do xtabond2: An introduction to difference and system GMM in Stata. The stata journal, 9(1), 86-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x0900900106 .
  • Rjoub, H., Aga, M., Oppong, C., Sunju, N., & Fofack, A. (2017). The Impact of FDI Inflows on Economic Growth: Evidence from Landlocked Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Bilig-Turk DunyasI Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(1), 153-168.
  • Sakyi, D., & Egyir, J. (2017). Effects of trade and FDI on economic growth in Africa: an empirical investigation. Transnational Corporations Review, 9(2), 66-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/19186444.2017.1326717 .
  • Sala-i-Martin, X. (1990). Lecture Notes on Economic Growth: Five Prototype Models of Endogenous Growth, Volume II (No. 622). Center Discussion Paper.. https://doi.org/10.3386/w3564 .
  • Santana-Gallego, M., & Fourie, J. (2022). Tourism falls apart: How insecurity affects African tourism. Tourism Economics, 28(4), 995-1008. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816620978128 .
  • Tatoğlu, F. (2020). İleri panel veri analizi. Beta Yayınevi. İstanbul
  • UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) (2022). World Investment Report 2022: International Tax Reforms and Sustainable Investment (New York and Geneva: United Nations). https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/diaeia2022d4_en.pdf#page=169 (Erişim 27.01.2023). https://doi.org/10.18356/9789210021784 .
  • Vadlamannati, K. C., & Tamazian, A. (2009). Growth effects of FDI in 80 developing economies: the role of policy reforms and institutional constraints. Journal of Economic Policy Reform, 12(4), 299-322. https://doi.org/10.1080/17487870903314583 .
  • Willem te Velde, D., & Nair, S. (2006). Foreign direct investment, services trade negotiations and development: the case of tourism in the Caribbean. Development Policy Review, 24(4), 437-454. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2006.00333.x .
  • Wiredu, J., Nketiah, E., & Adjei, M. (2020). The relationship between trade openness, foreign direct investment and economic growth in West Africa: Static panel data model. Journal of Human Resource and Sustainability Studies, 8(1), 18-34. https://doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2020.81002 .
  • Xu, X., & Sheng, Y. (2012). Are FDI spillovers regional? Firm-level evidence from china.Journal ofAsian Economics,23(3), 244–258.
  • Yusuf, H. A., Shittu, W. O., Akanbi, S. B., Umar, H. M., & Abdulrahman, I. A. (2020). The role of foreign direct investment, financial development, democracy and political (in) stability on economic growth in West Africa. International Trade, Politics and Development, 4(1), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.1108/itpd-01-2020-0002 .
  • Zekarias, S. M. (2016). The impact of foreign direct investment (FDI) on economic growth in Eastern Africa: Evidence from panel data analysis. Applied Economics and Finance, 3(1), 145-160. https://doi.org/10.11114/aef.v3i1.1317 .
There are 45 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Economics
Journal Section Main Section
Authors

Serhat Alpağut 0000-0001-7326-4048

Early Pub Date September 4, 2023
Publication Date September 18, 2023
Published in Issue Year 2023 Volume: 25 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Alpağut, S. (2023). Sahra Altı Afrika Ülkelerinde Ticari Açıklık ve Doğrudan Yabancı Yatırımların Ekonomik Büyümeye Etkisi: Dinamik Panel Veri Analizi. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 25(2), 673-700. https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1252446